Weather as a Force Multiplier:

A Research Paper
Presented To
Air Force 2025
by
Col Tamzy J. House
Lt Col James B. Near, Jr.
LTC William B. Shields (USA)
Maj Ronald J. Celentano
Maj David M. Husband
Maj Ann E. Mercer
Maj James E. Pugh
August 1996

Executive Summary
In 2025, US aerospace forces can “own the weather” by capitalizing on emerging technologies and
focusing development of those technologies to war-fighting applications. Such a capability offers the war
fighter tools to shape the battlespace in ways never before possible. It provides opportunities to impact
operations across the full spectrum of conflict and is pertinent to all possible futures. The purpose of this
paper is to outline a strategy for the use of a future weather-modification system to achieve military
objectives rather than to provide a detailed technical road map.
A high-risk, high-reward endeavor, weather-modification offers a dilemma not unlike the splitting of the
atom. While some segments of society will always be reluctant to examine controversial issues such as
weather-modification, the tremendous military capabilities that could result from this field are ignored at our
own peril. From enhancing friendly operations or disrupting those of the enemy via small-scale tailoring of
natural weather patterns to complete dominance of global communications and counterspace control,
weather-modification offers the war fighter a wide-range of possible options to defeat or coerce an
adversary. Some of the potential capabilities a weather-modification system could provide to a war-fighting
commander in chief (CINC) are listed in table 1.
Technology advancements in five major areas are necessary for an integrated weather-modification
capability: (1) advanced nonlinear modeling techniques, (2) computational capability, (3) information
gathering and transmission, (4) a global sensor array, and (5) weather intervention techniques. Some
intervention tools exist today and others may be developed and refined in the future.


Current technologies that will mature over the next 30 years will offer anyone who has the necessary
resources the ability to modify weather patterns and their corresponding effects, at least on the local scale.
Current demographic, economic, and environmental trends will create global stresses that provide the
impetus necessary for many countries or groups to turn this weather-modification ability into a capability.
In the United States, weather-modification will likely become a part of national security policy with
both domestic and international applications. Our government will pursue such a policy, depending on its
interests, at various levels. These levels could include unilateral actions, participation in a security
framework such as NATO, membership in an international organization such as the UN, or participation in a
coalition. Assuming that in 2025 our national security strategy includes weather-modification, its use in our
national military strategy will naturally follow. Besides the significant benefits an operational capability
would provide, another motivation to pursue weather-modification is to deter and counter potential
adversaries.
viii
In this paper we show that appropriate application of weather-modification can provide battlespace
dominance to a degree never before imagined. In the future, such operations will enhance air and space
superiority and provide new options for battlespace shaping and battlespace awareness.1 “The technology is
there, waiting for us to pull it all together;”2 in 2025 we can “Own the Weather.”

Scenario: Imagine that in 2025 the US is fighting a rich, but now consolidated, politically powerful
drug cartel in South America. The cartel has purchased hundreds of Russian-and Chinese-built fighters that
have successfully thwarted our attempts to attack their production facilities. With their local numerical
superiority and interior lines, the cartel is launching more than 10 aircraft for every one of ours. In addition,
the cartel is using the French system probatoire d' observation de la terre (SPOT) positioning and tracking
imagery systems, which in 2025 are capable of transmitting near-real-time, multispectral imagery with 1
meter resolution. The US wishes to engage the enemy on an uneven playing field in order to exploit the full
potential of our aircraft and munitions.
Meteorological analysis reveals that equatorial South America typically has afternoon thunderstorms on
a daily basis throughout the year. Our intelligence has confirmed that cartel pilots are reluctant to fly in or
near thunderstorms. Therefore, our weather force support element (WFSE), which is a part of the
commander in chief’s (CINC) air operations center (AOC), is tasked to forecast storm paths and trigger or
intensify thunderstorm cells over critical target areas that the enemy must defend with their aircraft. Since
our aircraft in 2025 have all-weather capability, the thunderstorm threat is minimal to our forces, and we can
effectively and decisively control the sky over the target.
The WFSE has the necessary sensor and communication capabilities to observe, detect, and act on
weather-modification requirements to support US military objectives. These capabilities are part of an
advanced battle area system that supports the war-fighting CINC. In our scenario, the CINC tasks the WFSE
to conduct storm intensification and concealment operations. The WFSE models the atmospheric conditions

to forecast, with 90 percent confidence, the likelihood of successful modification using airborne cloud
generation and seeding.
In 2025, uninhabited aerospace vehicles (UAV) are routinely used for weather-modification operations.
By cross-referencing desired attack times with wind and thunderstorm forecasts and the SPOT satellite’s
projected orbit, the WFSE generates mission profiles for each UAV. The WFSE guides each UAV using
near-real-time information from a networked sensor array.
Prior to the attack, which is coordinated with forecasted weather conditions, the UAVs begin cloud
generation and seeding operations. UAVs disperse a cirrus shield to deny enemy visual and infrared (IR)
surveillance. Simultaneously, microwave heaters create localized scintillation to disrupt active sensing via
synthetic aperture radar (SAR) systems such as the commercially available Canadian search and rescue
satellite-aided tracking (SARSAT) that will be widely available in 2025. Other cloud seeding operations
cause a developing thunderstorm to intensify over the target, severely limiting the enemy’s capability to
defend. The WFSE monitors the entire operation in real-time and notes the successful completion of another
very important but routine weather-modification mission.
This scenario may seem far-fetched, but by 2025 it is within the realm of possibility. The next chapter
explores the reasons for weather-modification, defines the scope, and examines trends that will make it
possible in the next 30 years.

Required Capability
Why Would We Want to Mess with the Weather?
According to Gen Gordon Sullivan, former Army chief of staff, “As we leap technology into the 21st
century, we will be able to see the enemy day or night, in any weather— and go after him relentlessly.”1 A
global, precise, real-time, robust, systematic weather-modification capability would provide war-fighting
CINCs with a powerful force multiplier to achieve military objectives. Since weather will be common to all
possible futures, a weather-modification capability would be universally applicable and have utility across
the entire spectrum of conflict. The capability of influencing the weather even on a small scale could change
it from a force degrader to a force multiplier.
People have always wanted to be able to do something about the weather. In the US, as early as 1839,
newspaper archives tell of people with serious and creative ideas on how to make rain.2 In 1957, the
president’s advisory committee on weather control explicitly recognized the military potential of weathermodification,
warning in their report that it could become a more important weapon than the atom bomb.3
However, controversy since 1947 concerning the possible legal consequences arising from the
deliberate alteration of large storm systems meant that little future experimentation could be conducted on
storms which had the potential to reach land.4 In 1977, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution
prohibiting the hostile use of environmental modification techniques. The resulting “Convention on the
Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Technique (ENMOD)”

committed the signatories to refrain from any military or other hostile use of weather-modification which
could result in widespread, long-lasting, or severe effects.5 While these two events have not halted the
pursuit of weather-modification research, they have significantly inhibited its pace and the development of
associated technologies, while producing a primary focus on suppressive versus intensification activities.
The influence of the weather on military operations has long been recognized. During World War II,
Eisenhower said,
[i]n Europe bad weather is the worst enemy of the air [operations]. Some soldier once
said, “The weather is always neutral.” Nothing could be more untrue. Bad weather is
obviously the enemy of the side that seeks to launch projects requiring good weather, or of
the side possessing great assets, such as strong air forces, which depend upon good
weather for effective operations. If really bad weather should endure permanently, the
Nazi would need nothing else to defend the Normandy coast!6
The impact of weather has also been important in more recent military operations. A significant number
of the air sorties into Tuzla during the initial deployment supporting the Bosnian peace operation aborted due
to weather. During Operation Desert Storm, Gen Buster C. Glosson asked his weather officer to tell him
which targets would be clear in 48 hours for inclusion in the air tasking order (ATO).7 But current
forecasting capability is only 85 percent accurate for no more than 24 hours, which doesn't adequately meet
the needs of the ATO planning cycle. Over 50 percent of the F-117 sorties weather aborted over their targets
and A-10s only flew 75 of 200 scheduled close air support (CAS) missions due to low cloud cover during
the first two days of the campaign.8 The application of weather-modification technology to clear a hole over
the targets long enough for F-117s to attack and place bombs on target or clear the fog from the runway at
Tuzla would have been a very effective force multiplier. Weather-modification clearly has potential for
military use at the operational level to reduce the elements of fog and friction for friendly operations and to
significantly increase them for the enemy.
What Do We Mean by “Weather-modification”?
Today, weather-modification is the alteration of weather phenomena over a limited area for a limited
period of time.9 Within the next three decades, the concept of weather-modification could expand to include
the ability to shape weather patterns by influencing their determining factors.10 Achieving such a highly
accurate and reasonably precise weather-modification capability in the next 30 years will require
overcoming some challenging but not insurmountable technological and legal hurdles.
Technologically, we must have a solid understanding of the variables that affect weather. We must be
able to model the dynamics of their relationships, map the possible results of their interactions, measure their
actual real-time values, and influence their values to achieve a desired outcome. Society will have to
provide the resources and legal basis for a mature capability to develop. How could all of this happen? The
following notional scenario postulates how weather-modification might become both technically feasible and
socially desirable by 2025.
Between now and 2005, technological advances in meteorology and the demand for more precise
weather information by global businesses will lead to the successful identification and parameterization of
the major variables that affect weather. By 2015, advances in computational capability, modeling techniques,
and atmospheric information tracking will produce a highly accurate and reliable weather prediction
capability, validated against real-world weather. In the following decade, population densities put pressure
on the worldwide availability and cost of food and usable water. Massive life and property losses
associated with natural weather disasters become increasingly unacceptable. These pressures prompt
governments and/or other organizations who are able to capitalize on the technological advances of the
previous 20 years to pursue a highly accurate and reasonably precise weather-modification capability. The
increasing urgency to realize the benefits of this capability stimulates laws and treaties, and some unilateral
actions, making the risks required to validate and refine it acceptable. By 2025, the world, or parts of it, are
able to shape local weather patterns by influencing the factors that affect climate, precipitation, storms and
their effects, fog, and near space. These highly accurate and reasonably precise civil applications of
weather-modification technology have obvious military implications. This is particularly true for aerospace
forces, for while weather may affect all mediums of operation, it operates in ours.
The term weather-modification may have negative connotations for many people, civilians and military
members alike. It is thus important to define the scope to be considered in this paper so that potential critics
or proponents of further research have a common basis for discussion.
In the broadest sense, weather-modification can be divided into two major categories: suppression and
intensification of weather patterns. In extreme cases, it might involve the creation of completely new weather

patterns, attenuation or control of severe storms, or even alteration of global climate on a far-reaching and/or
long-lasting scale. In the mildest and least controversial cases it may consist of inducing or suppressing
precipitation, clouds, or fog for short times over a small-scale region. Other low-intensity applications might
include the alteration and/or use of near space as a medium to enhance communications, disrupt active or
passive sensing, or other purposes. In conducting the research for this study, the broadest possible
interpretation of weather-modification was initially embraced, so that the widest range of opportunities
available for our military in 2025 were thoughtfully considered. However, for several reasons described
below, this paper focuses primarily on localized and short-term forms of weather-modification and how
these could be incorporated into war-fighting capability. The primary areas discussed include generation and
dissipation of precipitation, clouds, and fog; modification of localized storm systems; and the use of the
ionosphere and near space for space control and communications dominance. These applications are
consistent with CJCSI 3810.01, “Meteorological and Oceanographic Operations.”
11
Extreme and controversial examples of weather modification—creation of made-to-order weather,
large-scale climate modification, creation and/or control (or “steering”) of severe storms, etc.—were
researched as part of this study but receive only brief mention here because, in the authors’ judgment, the
technical obstacles preventing their application appear insurmountable within 30 years.12 If this were not the
case, such applications would have been included in this report as potential military options, despite their
controversial and potentially malevolent nature and their inconsistency with standing UN agreements to
which the US is a signatory.
On the other hand, the weather-modification applications proposed in this report range from technically
proven to potentially feasible. They are similar, however, in that none are currently employed or envisioned
for employment by our operational forces. They are also similar in their potential value for the war fighter of
the future, as we hope to convey in the following chapters. A notional integrated system that incorporates
weather-modification tools will be described in the next chapter; how those tools might be applied are then
discussed within the framework of the Concept of Operations in chapter 4.
7
1 Gen Gordon R. Sullivan, “Moving into the 21st Century: America’s Army and Modernization,”
Military Review (July 1993) quoted in Mary Ann Seagraves and Richard Szymber, “Weather a Force
Multiplier,” Military Review, November/December 1995, 75.
2 Horace R. Byers, “History of Weather-modification,” in Wilmot N. Hess, ed. Weather and Climate
Modification, (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974), 4.
3 William B. Meyer, “The Life and Times of US Weather: What Can We Do About It?” American
Heritage 37, no. 4 (June/July 1986), 48.
4 Byers, 13.
5 US Department of State, The Department of State Bulletin. 74, no. 1981 (13 June 1977): 10.
6 Dwight D Eisenhower. “Crusade in Europe,” quoted in John F. Fuller, Thor’s Legions (Boston:
American Meterology Society, 1990), 67.
7 Interview of Lt Col Gerald F. Riley, Staff Weather Officer to CENTCOM OIC of CENTAF Weather
Support Force and Commander of 3rd Weather Squadron, in “Desert Shield/Desert Storm Interview Series,”
by Dr William E. Narwyn, AWS Historian, 29 May 1991.
8 Thomas A. Keaney and Eliot A. Cohen. Gulf War Air Power Survey Summary Report (Washington
D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1993), 172.
9 Herbert S. Appleman, An Introduction to Weather-modification (Scott AFB, Ill.: Air Weather
Service/MAC, September 1969), 1.
10 William Bown, “Mathematicians Learn How to Tame Chaos,” New Scientist, 30 May 1992, 16.
11 CJCSI 3810.01, Meteorological and Oceanographic Operations, 10 January 95. This CJCS
Instruction establishes policy and assigns responsibilities for conducting meteorological and oceanographic
operations. It also defines the terms widespread, long-lasting, and severe, in order to identify those activities
that US forces are prohibited from conducting under the terms of the UN Environmental Modification
Convention. Widespread is defined as encompassing an area on the scale of several hundred km; long-lasting
means lasting for a period of months, or approximately a season; and severe involves serious or significant
disruption or harm to human life, natural and economic resources, or other assets.
12 Concern about the unintended consequences of attempting to “control” the weather is well justified.
Weather is a classic example of a chaotic system (i.e., a system that never exactly repeats itself). A chaotic
system is also extremely sensitive: minuscule differences in conditions greatly affect outcomes. According to
Dr. Glenn James, a widely published chaos expert, technical advances may provide a means to predict when
weather transitions will occur and the magnitude of the inputs required to cause those transitions; however, it
will never be possible to precisely predict changes that occur as a result of our inputs. The chaotic nature of
weather also limits our ability to make accurate long-range forecasts. The renowned physicist Edward
Teller recently presented calculations he performed to determine the long-range weather forecasting
improvement that would result from a satellite constellation providing continuous atmospheric measurements
over a 1 km2 grid worldwide. Such a system, which is currently cost-prohibitive, would only improve longrange
forecasts from the current five days to approximately 14 days. Clearly, there are definite physical
limits to mankind’s ability to control nature, but the extent of those physical limits remains an open question.
Sources: G. E. James, “Chaos Theory: The Essentials for Military Applications,” in ACSC Theater Air
Campaign Studies Coursebook, AY96, 8 (Maxwell AFB, Ala: Air University Press, 1995), 1-64. The
Teller calculations are cited in Reference 49 of this source.

System Description
Our vision is that by 2025 the military could influence the weather on a mesoscale (<200 km2) or
microscale (immediate local area) to achieve operational capabilities such as those listed in Table 1. The
capability would be the synergistic result of a system consisting of (1) highly trained weather force
specialists (WFS) who are members of the CINC’s weather force support element (WFSE); (2) access ports
to the global weather network (GWN), where worldwide weather observations and forecasts are obtained
near-real-time from civilian and military sources; (3) a dense, highly accurate local area weather sensing and
communication system; (4) an advanced computer local area weather-modification modeling and prediction
capability within the area of responsibility (AOR); (5) proven weather-modification intervention
technologies; and (6) a feedback capability.
The Global Weather Network
The GWN is envisioned to be an evolutionary expansion of the current military and civilian worldwide
weather data network. By 2025, it will be a super high-speed, expanded bandwidth, communication network
filled with near-real-time weather observations taken from a denser and more accurate worldwide
observation network resulting from highly improved ground, air, maritime, and space sensors. The network
will also provide access to forecast centers around the world where sophisticated, tailored forecast and data
products, generated from weather prediction models (global, regional, local, specialized, etc.) based on the
latest nonlinear mathematical techniques are made available to GWN customers for near-real-time use.

By 2025, we envision that weather prediction models, in general, and mesoscale weather-modification
models, in particular, will be able to emulate all-weather producing variables, along with their interrelated
dynamics, and prove to be highly accurate in stringent measurement trials against empirical data. The brains
of these models will be advanced software and hardware capabilities which can rapidly ingest trillions of
environmental data points, merge them into usable data bases, process the data through the weather prediction
models, and disseminate the weather information over the GWN in near-real-time.1 This network is depicted
schematically in figure 3-1.
Source: Microsoft Clipart Gallery ã 1995 with courtesy from Microsoft.
Figure 3-1. Global Weather Network
Evidence of the evolving future weather modeling and prediction capability as well as the GWN can be
seen in the national oceanic and atmospheric administration's (NOAA) 1995–2005 strategic plan. It includes
program elements to "advance short-term warning and forecast services, implement seasonal to inter-annual
climate forecasts, and predict and assess decadal to centennial change;"2 it does not, however, include plans
for weather-modification modeling or modification technology development. NOAA's plans include
extensive data gathering programs such as Next Generation Radar (NEXRAD) and Doppler weather
surveillance systems deployed throughout the US. Data from these sensing systems feed into over 100
forecast centers for processing by the Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS), which
will provide data communication, processing, and display capabilities for extensive forecasting. In addition,

NOAA has leased a Cray C90 supercomputer capable of performing over 1.5x1010 operations per second that
has already been used to run a Hurricane Prediction System.3
Applying Weather-modification to Military Operations
How will the military, in general, and the USAF, in particular, manage and employ a weathermodification
capability? We envision this will be done by the weather force support element (WFSE),
whose primary mission would be to support the war-fighting CINCs with weather-modification options, in
addition to current forecasting support. Although the WFSE could operate anywhere as long as it has access
to the GWN and the system components already discussed, it will more than likely be a component within the
AOC or its 2025-equivalent. With the CINC’s intent as guidance, the WFSE formulates weathermodification
options using information provided by the GWN, local weather data network, and weathermodification
forecast model. The options include range of effect, probability of success, resources to be
expended, the enemy’s vulnerability, and risks involved. The CINC chooses an effect based on these inputs,
and the WFSE then implements the chosen course, selecting the right modification tools and employing them
to achieve the desired effect. Sensors detect the change and feed data on the new weather pattern to the
modeling system which updates its forecast accordingly. The WFSE checks the effectiveness of its efforts by
pulling down the updated current conditions and new forecast(s) from the GWN and local weather data
network, and plans follow-on missions as needed. This concept is illustrated in figure 3-2.
11
33--DECIISIION
6--FEEDBACK
AIIR OPS CENTER
WEATHER FORCE
SUPPORT ELEMENT
CINC
1--IINTENT
2--WX MOD
OPTIIONS
FORECASTS//
DATA
4--EMPLOY
WX MOD TOOLS
5--CAUSE EFFECT
GWN
Source: Microsoft Clipart Gallery ã 1995 with courtesy from Microsoft.
Figure 3-2. The Military System for Weather-Modification Operations.
WFSE personnel will need to be experts in information systems and well schooled in the arts of both
offensive and defensive information warfare. They would also have an in-depth understanding of the GWN
and an appreciation for how weather-modification could be employed to meet a CINC’s needs.
Because of the nodal web nature of the GWN, this concept would be very flexible. For instance, a
WFSE could be assigned to each theater to provide direct support to the CINC. The system would also be
survivable, with multiple nodes connected to the GWN.
A product of the information age, this system would be most vulnerable to information warfare. Each
WFSE would need the most current defensive and offensive information capabilities available. Defensive
abilities would be necessary for survival. Offensive abilities could provide spoofing options to create
virtual weather in the enemy's sensory and information systems, making it more likely for them to make
decisions producing results of our choosing rather than theirs. It would also allow for the capability to mask
or disguise our weather-modification activities.
12
Two key technologies are necessary to meld an integrated, comprehensive, responsive, precise, and
effective weather-modification system. Advances in the science of chaos are critical to this endeavor. Also
key to the feasibility of such a system is the ability to model the extremely complex nonlinear system of
global weather in ways that can accurately predict the outcome of changes in the influencing variables.
Researchers have already successfully controlled single variable nonlinear systems in the lab and
hypothesize that current mathematical techniques and computer capacity could handle systems with up to five
variables. Advances in these two areas would make it feasible to affect regional weather patterns by making
small, continuous nudges to one or more influencing factors. Conceivably, with enough lead time and the
right conditions, you could get “made-to-order” weather.4
Developing a true weather-modification capability will require various intervention tools to adjust the
appropriate meteorological parameters in predictable ways. It is this area that must be developed by the
military based on specific required capabilities such as those listed in table 1, table 1 is located in the
Executive Summary. Such a system would contain a sensor array and localized battle area data net to
provide the fine level of resolution required to detect intervention effects and provide feedback. This net
would include ground, air, maritime, and space sensors as well as human observations in order to ensure the
reliability and responsiveness of the system, even in the event of enemy countermeasures. It would also
include specific intervention tools and technologies, some of which already exist and others which must be
developed. Some of these proposed tools are described in the following chapter titled Concept of
Operations. The total weather-modification process would be a real-time loop of continuous, appropriate,
measured interventions, and feedback capable of producing desired weather behavior.
Notes
1 SPACECAST 2020, Space Weather Support for Communications, white paper G (Maxwell AFB,
Ala.: Air War College/2020, 1994).
2 Rear Adm Sigmund Petersen, “NOAA Moves Toward The 21st Century,” The Military Engineer 20,
no. 571 (June-July 1995): 44.
3 Ibid.
4 William Brown, “Mathematicians Learn How to Tame Chaos,” New Scientist (30 May 1992): 16.

Concept of Operations
The essential ingredient of the weather-modification system is the set of intervention techniques used to
modify the weather. The number of specific intervention methodologies is limited only by the imagination,
but with few exceptions they involve infusing either energy or chemicals into the meteorological process in
the right way, at the right place and time. The intervention could be designed to modify the weather in a
number of ways, such as influencing clouds and precipitation, storm intensity, climate, space, or fog.
Precipitation
For centuries man has desired the ability to influence precipitation at the time and place of his choosing.
Until recently, success in achieving this goal has been minimal; however, a new window of opportunity may
exist resulting from development of new technologies and an increasing world interest in relieving water
shortages through precipitation enhancement. Consequently, we advocate that the DOD explore the many
opportunities (and also the ramifications) resulting from development of a capability to influence
precipitation or conducting “selective precipitation modification.” Although the capability to influence
precipitation over the long term (i.e., for more than several days) is still not fully understood. By 2025 we
will certainly be capable of increasing or decreasing precipitation over the short term in a localized area.
Before discussing research in this area, it is important to describe the benefits of such a capability.
While many military operations may be influenced by precipitation, ground mobility is most affected.
Influencing precipitation could prove useful in two ways. First, enhancing precipitation could decrease the

enemy’s trafficability by muddying terrain, while also affecting their morale. Second, suppressing
precipitation could increase friendly trafficability by drying out an otherwise muddied area.
What is the possibility of developing this capability and applying it to tactical operations by 2025?
Closer than one might think. Research has been conducted in precipitation modification for many years, and
an aspect of the resulting technology was applied to operations during the Vietnam War.1 These initial
attempts provide a foundation for further development of a true capability for selective precipitation
modification.
Interestingly enough, the US government made a conscious decision to stop building upon this
foundation. As mentioned earlier, international agreements have prevented the US from investigating
weather-modification operations that could have widespread, long-lasting, or severe effects. However,
possibilities do exist (within the boundaries of established treaties) for using localized precipitation
modification over the short term, with limited and potentially positive results.
These possibilities date back to our own previous experimentation with precipitation modification. As
stated in an article appearing in the Journal of Applied Meteorology,
[n]early all the weather-modification efforts over the last quarter century have been aimed
at producing changes on the cloud scale through exploitation of the saturated vapor
pressure difference between ice and water. This is not to be criticized but it is time we
also consider the feasibility of weather-modification on other time-space scales and with
other physical hypotheses.2
This study by William M. Gray, et al., investigated the hypothesis that “significant beneficial influences
can be derived through judicious exploitation of the solar absorption potential of carbon black dust.”3 The
study ultimately found that this technology could be used to enhance rainfall on the mesoscale, generate cirrus
clouds, and enhance cumulonimbus (thunderstorm) clouds in otherwise dry areas.
The technology can be described as follows. Just as a black tar roof easily absorbs solar energy and
subsequently radiates heat during a sunny day, carbon black also readily absorbs solar energy. When
dispersed in microscopic or “dust” form in the air over a large body of water, the carbon becomes hot and
heats the surrounding air, thereby increasing the amount of evaporation from the body of water below. As the
surrounding air heats up, parcels of air will rise and the water vapor contained in the rising air parcel will
eventually condense to form clouds. Over time the cloud droplets increase in size as more and more water
vapor condenses, and eventually they become too large and heavy to stay suspended and will fall as rain or

other forms of precipitation.4 The study points out that this precipitation enhancement technology would
work best “upwind from coastlines with onshore flow.” Lake-effect snow along the southern edge of the
Great Lakes is a naturally occurring phenomenon based on similar dynamics.
Can this type of precipitation enhancement technology have military applications? Yes, if the right
conditions exist. For example, if we are fortunate enough to have a fairly large body of water available
upwind from the targeted battlefield, carbon dust could be placed in the atmosphere over that water.
Assuming the dynamics are supportive in the atmosphere, the rising saturated air will eventually form clouds
and rainshowers downwind over the land.5 While the likelihood of having a body of water located upwind
of the battlefield is unpredictable, the technology could prove enormously useful under the right conditions.
Only further experimentation will determine to what degree precipitation enhancement can be controlled.
If precipitation enhancement techniques are successfully developed and the right natural conditions also
exist, we must also be able to disperse carbon dust into the desired location. Transporting it in a completely
controlled, safe, cost-effective, and reliable manner requires innovation. Numerous dispersal techniques
have already been studied, but the most convenient, safe, and cost-effective method discussed is the use of
afterburner-type jet engines to generate carbon particles while flying through the targeted air. This method is
based on injection of liquid hydrocarbon fuel into the afterburner’s combustion gases. This direct generation
method was found to be more desirable than another plausible method (i.e., the transport of large quantities of
previously produced and properly sized carbon dust to the desired altitude).
The carbon dust study demonstrated that small-scale precipitation enhancement is possible and has been
successfully verified under certain atmospheric conditions. Since the study was conducted, no known
military applications of this technology have been realized. However, we can postulate how this technology
might be used in the future by examining some of the delivery platforms conceivably available for effective
dispersal of carbon dust or other effective modification agents in the year 2025.
One method we propose would further maximize the technology’s safety and reliability, by virtually
eliminating the human element. To date, much work has been done on UAVs which can closely (if not
completely) match the capabilities of piloted aircraft. If this UAV technology were combined with stealth and
carbon dust technologies, the result could be a UAV aircraft invisible to radar while en route to the targeted
area, which could spontaneously create carbon dust in any location. However, minimizing the number of

UAVs required to complete the mission would depend upon the development of a new and more efficient
system to produce carbon dust by a follow-on technology to the afterburner-type jet engines previously
mentioned. In order to effectively use stealth technology, this system must also have the ability to disperse
carbon dust while minimizing (or eliminating) the UAV’s infrared heat source.
In addition to using stealth UAV and carbon dust absorption technology for precipitation enhancement,
this delivery method could also be used for precipitation suppression. Although the previously mentioned
study did not significantly explore the possibility of cloud seeding for precipitation suppression, this
possibility does exist. If clouds were seeded (using chemical nuclei similar to those used today or perhaps a
more effective agent discovered through continued research) before their downwind arrival to a desired
location, the result could be a suppression of precipitation. In other words, precipitation could be “forced”
to fall before its arrival in the desired territory, thereby making the desired territory “dry.” The strategic and
operational benefits of doing this have previously been discussed.
Fog
In general, successful fog dissipation requires some type of heating or seeding process. Which
technique works best depends on the type of fog encountered. In simplest terms, there are two basic types of
fog—cold and warm. Cold fog occurs at temperatures below 32oF. The best-known dissipation technique
for cold fog is to seed it from the air with agents that promote the growth of ice crystals.6
Warm fog occurs at temperatures above 32oF and accounts for 90 percent of the fog-related problems
encountered by flight operations.7 The best-known dissipation technique is heating because a small
temperature increase is usually sufficient to evaporate the fog. Since heating usually isn’t practical, the next
most effective technique is hygroscopic seeding.8 Hygroscopic seeding uses agents that absorb water vapor.
This technique is most effective when accomplished from the air but can also be accomplished from the
ground.9 Optimal results require advance information on fog depth, liquid water content, and wind.10
Decades of research show that fog dissipation is an effective application of weather-modification
technology with demonstrated savings of huge proportions for both military and civil aviation.11 Local

municipalities have also shown an interest in applying these techniques to improve the safety of high-speed
highways transiting areas of frequently occurring dense fog.12
There are some emerging technologies which may have important applications for fog dispersal. As
discussed earlier, heating is the most effective dispersal method for the most commonly occurring type of fog.
Unfortunately, it has proved impractical for most situations and would be difficult at best for contingency
operations. However, the development of directed radiant energy technologies, such as microwaves and
lasers, could provide new possibilities.
Lab experiments have shown microwaves to be effective for the heat dissipation of fog. However,
results also indicate that the energy levels required exceed the US large power density exposure limit of 100
watt/m2 and would be very expensive.13 Field experiments with lasers have demonstrated the capability to
dissipate warm fog at an airfield with zero visibility. Generating 1 watt/cm2, which is approximately the US
large power density exposure limit, the system raised visibility to one quarter of a mile in 20 seconds.14
Laser systems described in the Space Operations portion of this AF 2025 study could certainly provide this
capability as one of their many possible uses.
With regard to seeding techniques, improvements in the materials and delivery methods are not only
plausible but likely. Smart materials based on nanotechnology are currently being developed with gigaops
computer capability at their core. They could adjust their size to optimal dimensions for a given fog seeding
situation and even make adjustments throughout the process. They might also enhance their dispersal
qualities by adjusting their buoyancy, by communicating with each other, and by steering themselves within
the fog. They will be able to provide immediate and continuous effectiveness feedback by integrating with a
larger sensor network and can also change their temperature and polarity to improve their seeding effects.15
As mentioned above, UAVs could be used to deliver and distribute these smart materials.
Recent army research lab experiments have demonstrated the feasibility of generating fog. They used
commercial equipment to generate thick fog in an area 100 meters long. Further study has shown fogs to be
effective at blocking much of the UV/IR/visible spectrum, effectively masking emitters of such radiation from
IR weapons.16 This technology would enable a small military unit to avoid detection in the IR spectrum. Fog
could be generated to quickly, conceal the movement of tanks or infantry, or it could conceal military

operations, facilities, or equipment. Such systems may also be useful in inhibiting observations of sensitive
rear-area operations by electro-optical reconnaissance platforms.17
Storms
The desirability to modify storms to support military objectives is the most aggressive and
controversial type of weather-modification. The damage caused by storms is indeed horrendous. For
instance, a tropical storm has an energy equal to 10,000 one-megaton hydrogen bombs,18 and in 1992
Hurricane Andrew totally destroyed Homestead AFB, Florida, caused the evacuation of most military
aircraft in the southeastern US, and resulted in $15.5 billion of damage.19 However, as one would expect
based on a storm’s energy level, current scientific literature indicates that there are definite physical limits on
mankind’s ability to modify storm systems. By taking this into account along with political, environmental,
economic, legal, and moral considerations, we will confine our analysis of storms to localized thunderstorms
and thus do not consider major storm systems such as hurricanes or intense low-pressure systems.
At any instant there are approximately 2,000 thunderstorms taking place. In fact 45,000 thunderstorms,
which contain heavy rain, hail, microbursts, wind shear, and lightning form daily.20 Anyone who has flown
frequently on commercial aircraft has probably noticed the extremes that pilots will go to avoid
thunderstorms. The danger of thunderstorms was clearly shown in August 1985 when a jumbo jet crashed
killing 137 people after encountering microburst wind shears during a rain squall.21 These forces of nature
impact all aircraft and even the most advanced fighters of 1996 make every attempt to avoid a thunderstorm.
Will bad weather remain an aviation hazard in 2025? The answer, unfortunately, is “yes,” but
projected advances in technology over the next 30 years will diminish the hazard potential. Computercontrolled
flight systems will be able to “autopilot” aircraft through rapidly changing winds. Aircraft will
also have highly accurate, onboard sensing systems that can instantaneously “map” and automatically guide
the aircraft through the safest portion of a storm cell. Aircraft are envisioned to have hardened electronics
that can withstand the effects of lightning strikes and may also have the capability to generate a surrounding
electropotential field that will neutralize or repel lightning strikes.

Assuming that the US achieves some or all of the above outlined aircraft technical advances and
maintains the technological “weather edge” over its potential adversaries, we can next look at how we could
modify the battlespace weather to make the best use of our technical advantage.
Weather-modification technologies might involve techniques that would increase latent heat release in
the atmosphere, provide additional water vapor for cloud cell development, and provide additional surface
and lower atmospheric heating to increase atmospheric instability. Critical to the success of any attempt to
trigger a storm cell is the pre-existing atmospheric conditions locally and regionally. The atmosphere must
already be conditionally unstable and the large-scale dynamics must be supportive of vertical cloud
development. The focus of the weather-modification effort would be to provide additional “conditions” that
would make the atmosphere unstable enough to generate cloud and eventually storm cell development. The
path of storm cells once developed or enhanced is dependent not only on the mesoscale dynamics of the storm
but the regional and synoptic (global) scale atmospheric wind flow patterns in the area which are currently
not subject to human control.
As indicated, the technical hurdles for storm development in support of military operations are
obviously greater than enhancing precipitation or dispersing fog as described earlier. One area of storm
research that would significantly benefit military operations is lightning modification. Most research efforts
are being conducted to develop techniques to lessen the occurrence or hazards associated with lightning.
This is important research for military operations and resource protection, but some offensive military benefit
could be obtained by doing research on increasing the potential and intensity of lightning. Concepts to
explore include increasing the basic efficiency of the thunderstorm, stimulating the triggering mechanism that
initiates the bolt, and triggering lightning such as that which struck Apollo 12 in 1968.22 Possible
mechanisms to investigate would be ways to modify the electropotential characteristics over certain targets to
induce lightning strikes on the desired targets as the storm passes over their location.
In summary, the ability to modify battlespace weather through storm cell triggering or enhancement
would allow us to exploit the technological “weather” advances of our 2025 aircraft; this area has
tremendous potential and should be addressed by future research and concept development programs.

Exploitation of “NearSpace” for Space Control
This section discusses opportunities for control and modification of the ionosphere and near-space
environment for force enhancement; specifically to enhance our own communications, sensing, and navigation
capabilities and/or impair those of our enemy. A brief technical description of the ionosphere and its
importance in current communications systems is provided in appendix A.
By 2025, it may be possible to modify the ionosphere and near space, creating a variety of potential
applications, as discussed below. However, before ionospheric modification becomes possible, a number of
evolutionary advances in space weather forecasting and observation are needed. Many of these needs were
described in a Spacecast 2020 study, Space Weather Support for Communications.23 Some of the
suggestions from this study are included in appendix B; it is important to note that our ability to exploit near
space via active modification is dependent on successfully achieving reliable observation and prediction
capabilities.
Opportunities Afforded by Space Weather-modification
Modification of the near-space environment is crucial to battlespace dominance. General Charles
Horner, former commander in chief, United States space command, described his worst nightmare as “seeing
an entire Marine battalion wiped out on some foreign landing zone because he was unable to deny the enemy
intelligence and imagery generated from space.”24 Active modification could provide a “technological fix”
to jam the enemy’s active and passive surveillance and reconnaissance systems. In short, an operational
capability to modify the near-space environment would ensure space superiority in 2025; this capability
would allow us to shape and control the battlespace via enhanced communication, sensing, navigation,
and precision engagement systems.
While we recognize that technological advances may negate the importance of certain electromagnetic
frequencies for US aerospace forces in 2025 (such as radio frequency (RF), high-frequency (HF) and very
high-frequency (VHF) bands), the capabilities described below are nevertheless relevant. Our nonpeer

adversaries will most likely still depend on such frequencies for communications, sensing, and navigation
and would thus be extremely vulnerable to disruption via space weather-modification.
Communications Dominance via Ionospheric Modification
Modification of the ionosphere to enhance or disrupt communications has recently become the subject of
active research. According to Lewis M. Duncan, and Robert L. Showen, the Former Soviet Union (FSU)
conducted theoretical and experimental research in this area at a level considerably greater than comparable
programs in the West.25 There is a strong motivation for this research, because
induced ionospheric modifications may influence, or even disrupt, the operation of radio
systems relying on propagation through the modified region. The controlled generation or
accelerated dissipation of ionospheric disturbances may be used to produce new
propagation paths, otherwise unavailable, appropriate for selected RF missions.26
A number of methods have been explored or proposed to modify the ionosphere, including injection of
chemical vapors and heating or charging via electromagnetic radiation or particle beams (such as ions,
neutral particles, x-rays, MeV particles, and energetic electrons).27 It is important to note that many
techniques to modify the upper atmosphere have been successfully demonstrated experimentally. Groundbased
modification techniques employed by the FSU include vertical HF heating, oblique HF heating,
microwave heating, and magnetospheric modification.28 Significant military applications of such operations
include low frequency (LF) communication production, HF ducted communications, and creation of an
artificial ionosphere (discussed in detail below). Moreover, developing countries also recognize the benefit
of ionospheric modification: “in the early 1980’s, Brazil conducted an experiment to modify the ionosphere
by chemical injection.”29
Several high-payoff capabilities that could result from the modification of the ionosphere or near space
are described briefly below. It should be emphasized that this list is not comprehensive; modification of the
ionosphere is an area rich with potential applications and there are also likely spin-off applications that have
yet to be envisioned.
Ionospheric mirrors for pinpoint communication or over-the-horizon (OTH) radar transmission.
The properties and limitations of the ionosphere as a reflecting medium for high-frequency radiation are

described in appendix A. The major disadvantage in depending on the ionosphere to reflect radio waves is
its variability, which is due to normal space weather and events such as solar flares and geomagnetic storms.
The ionosphere has been described as a crinkled sheet of wax paper whose relative position rises and sinks
depending on weather conditions. The surface topography of the crinkled paper also constantly changes,
leading to variability in its reflective, refractive, and transmissive properties.
Creation of an artificial uniform ionosphere was first proposed by Soviet researcher A. V. Gurevich in
the mid-1970s. An artificial ionospheric mirror (AIM) would serve as a precise mirror for electromagnetic
radiation of a selected frequency or a range of frequencies. It would thereby be useful for both pinpoint
control of friendly communications and interception of enemy transmissions.
This concept has been described in detail by Paul A. Kossey, et al. in a paper entitled “Artificial
Ionospheric Mirrors (AIM).”30 The authors describe how one could precisely control the location and height
of the region of artificially produced ionization using crossed microwave (MW) beams, which produce
atmospheric breakdown (ionization) of neutral species. The implications of such control are enormous: one
would no longer be subject to the vagaries of the natural ionosphere but would instead have direct control of
the propagation environment. Ideally, the AIM could be rapidly created and then would be maintained only
for a brief operational period. A schematic depicting the crossed-beam approach for generation of an AIM is
shown in figure 4-1.31
An AIM could theoretically reflect radio waves with frequencies up to 2 GHz, which is nearly two
orders of magnitude higher than those waves reflected by the natural ionosphere. The MW radiator power
requirements for such a system are roughly an order of magnitude greater than 1992 state-of-the-art systems;
however, by 2025 such a power capability is expected to be easily achievable.

NORMAL IONOSPHERIC REFLECTING LAYERS
(100-300 km)
IONIZATION LAYER
(MIRROR)
INTENSE MW 30-70 km
BEAMS
Source: Microsoft Clipart Gallery ã 1995 with courtesy from Microsoft.
Figure 4-1. Crossed-Beam Approach for Generating an Artificial Ionospheric Mirror
Besides providing pinpoint communication control and potential interception capability, this technology
would also provide communication capability at specified frequencies, as desired. Figure 4-2 shows how a
ground-based radiator might generate a series of AIMs, each of which would be tailored to reflect a selected
transmission frequency. Such an arrangement would greatly expand the available bandwidth for
communications and also eliminate the problem of interference and crosstalk (by allowing one to use the
requisite power level).

Artificial Ionospheric Mirrors
8 MHz
5 MHz 12 MHz
14 MHz
GROUND-BASED
AIM GENERATOR
TRANSMISSION
STATION
RECEIVER
STATION
Source: Microsoft Clipart Gallery ã 1995 with courtesy from Microsoft.
Figure 4-2. Artificial Ionospheric Mirrors Point-to-Point Communications
Kossey et al. also describe how AIMs could be used to improve the capability of OTH radar:
AIM based radar could be operated at a frequency chosen to optimize target detection,
rather than be limited by prevailing ionospheric conditions. This, combined with the
possibility of controlling the radar’s wave polarization to mitigate clutter effects, could
result in reliable detection of cruise missiles and other low observable targets.32
A schematic depicting this concept is shown in figure 4-3. Potential advantages over conventional OTH
radars include frequency control, mitigation of auroral effects, short range operation, and detection of a
smaller cross-section target.

IONOSPHERE
AIM
OTH
RADAR
NORMAL
OTH RANGE
Source: Microsoft Clipart Gallery ã 1995 with courtesy from Microsoft.
Figure 4-3. Artificial Ionospheric Mirror Over-the-Horizon Surveillance Concept.
Disruption of communications and radar via ionospheric control. A variation of the capability
proposed above is ionospheric modification to disrupt an enemy’s communication or radar transmissions.
Because HF communications are controlled directly by the ionosphere’s properties, an artificially created
ionization region could conceivably disrupt an enemy’s electromagnetic transmissions. Even in the absence
of an artificial ionization patch, high-frequency modification produces large-scale ionospheric variations
which alter HF propagation characteristics. The payoff of research aimed at understanding how to control
these variations could be high as both HF communication enhancement and degradation are possible.
Offensive interference of this kind would likely be indistinguishable from naturally occurring space weather.
This capability could also be employed to precisely locate the source of enemy electromagnetic
transmissions.
VHF, UHF, and super-high frequency (SHF) satellite communications could be disrupted by creating
artificial ionospheric scintillation. This phenomenon causes fluctuations in the phase and amplitude of radio
waves over a very wide band (30 MHz to 30 GHz). HF modification produces electron density irregularities
that cause scintillation over a wide-range of frequencies. The size of the irregularities determines which
frequency band will be affected. Understanding how to control the spectrum of the artificial irregularities

generated in the HF modification process should be a primary goal of research in this area. Additionally, it
may be possible to suppress the growth of natural irregularities resulting in reduced levels of natural
scintillation. Creating artificial scintillation would allow us to disrupt satellite transmissions over selected
regions. Like the HF disruption described above, such actions would likely be indistinguishable from
naturally occurring environmental events. Figure 4-4 shows how artificially ionized regions might be used to
disrupt HF communications via attenuation, scatter, or absorption (fig. 4.4a) or degrade satellite
communications via scintillation or energy loss (fig. 4-4b) (from Ref. 25).
km
300
100
50
REGION
F
E
D
POTENTIAL HF PROBLEMS
ABSORPTION
ATTENUATION
SCATTER
GROUND
REGION
F
E
D
km
300
100
50
SCINTILLATION
ENERGY LOSS
GROUND
POTENTIAL TRANSIONOSPHERIC PROBLEMS
(a) (b)
Source: Microsoft Clipart Gallery ã 1995 with courtesy from Microsoft.
Figure 4-4. Scenarios for Telecommunications Degradation
Exploding/disabling space assets traversing near-space. The ionosphere could potentially be
artificially charged or injected with radiation at a certain point so that it becomes inhospitable to satellites or
other space structures. The result could range from temporarily disabling the target to its complete
destruction via an induced explosion. Of course, effectively employing such a capability depends on the
ability to apply it selectively to chosen regions in space.
Charging space assets by near-space energy transfer. In contrast to the injurious capability described
above, regions of the ionosphere could potentially be modified or used as-is to revitalize space assets, for
instance by charging their power systems. The natural charge of the ionosphere may serve to provide most or
all of the energy input to the satellite. There have been a number of papers in the last decade on electrical

charging of space vehicles; however, according to one author, “in spite of the significant effort made in the
field both theoretically and experimentally, the vehicle charging problem is far from being completely
understood.”33 While the technical challenge is considerable, the potential to harness electrostatic energy to
fuel the satellite’s power cells would have a high payoff, enabling service life extension of space assets at a
relatively low cost. Additionally, exploiting the capability of powerful HF radio waves to accelerate
electrons to relatively high energies may also facilitate the degradation of enemy space assets through
directed bombardment with the HF-induced electron beams. As with artificial HF communication
disruptions and induced scintillation, the degradation of enemy spacecraft with such techniques would be
effectively indistinguishable from natural environment effects. The investigation and optimization of HF
acceleration mechanisms for both friendly and hostile purposes is an important area for future research
efforts.
Artificial Weather
While most weather-modification efforts rely on the existence of certain preexisting conditions, it may
be possible to produce some weather effects artificially, regardless of preexisting conditions. For instance,
virtual weather could be created by influencing the weather information received by an end user. Their
perception of parameter values or images from global or local meteorological information systems would
differ from reality. This difference in perception would lead the end user to make degraded operational
decisions.
Nanotechnology also offers possibilities for creating simulated weather. A cloud, or several clouds, of
microscopic computer particles, all communicating with each other and with a larger control system could
provide tremendous capability. Interconnected, atmospherically buoyant, and having navigation capability in
three dimensions, such clouds could be designed to have a wide-range of properties. They might exclusively
block optical sensors or could adjust to become impermeable to other surveillance methods. They could also
provide an atmospheric electrical potential difference, which otherwise might not exist, to achieve precisely
aimed and timed lightning strikes. Even if power levels achieved were insufficient to be an effective strike
weapon, the potential for psychological operations in many situations could be fantastic.

One major advantage of using simulated weather to achieve a desired effect is that unlike other
approaches, it makes what are otherwise the results of deliberate actions appear to be the consequences of
natural weather phenomena. In addition, it is potentially relatively inexpensive to do. According to J. Storrs
Hall, a scientist at Rutgers University conducting research on nanotechnology, production costs of these
nanoparticles could be about the same price per pound as potatoes.34 This of course discounts research and
development costs, which will be primarily borne by the private sector and be considered a sunk cost by
2025 and probably earlier.
Concept of Operations Summary
Weather affects everything we do, and weather-modification can enhance our ability to dominate the
aerospace environment. It gives the commander tools to shape the battlespace. It gives the logistician tools
to optimize the process. It gives the warriors in the cockpit an operating environment literally crafted to their
needs. Some of the potential capabilities a weather-modification system could provide to a war-fighting
CINC are summarized in table 1, of the executive summary).